late19thcenturysociety

=A Refreshing Break from my Powerpoint(less) notes. Note (no pun intended) that there are two versions of notes--one from each period=

New Patterns in an Industrial Economy (period 2)

• Between 1873 and 1895, Europe experienced a series of economic crises which included falling prices especially in agricultural products and reduced profits due to slumps in the business cycle. These conditions led historians to characterize this time period as a great depression.

• From 1895 until World War I, Europe experienced an economic boom and a level of prosperity that encouraged people to refer to the era a la belle époque- a golden age in European civilization.

• Germany replaced Great Britain as the industrial leader of Europe after 1870, and German superiority was evident in new areas of manufacturing like organic chemicals and electrical equipment, and increasingly apparent in its ever-greater share of worldwide trade.

• Germany became the new industrial leader of Europe because of Britain’s inability to shift to the new techniques of the Second Industrial Revolution, and Germany willing to build the latest and most efficient industrial plants.

• After 1870, the relationship of science and technology grew closer, especially in Germany where technical schools were turning out three to four thousand graduates a year by 1900.

• By 1900, Europe was divided into two economic zones. Great Britain, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Germany, the western part of Austro-Hungarian Empire, and northern Italy made up an advanced industrialized core. Southern Italy, most of Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, the Balkan Kingdom, and Russia were little industrialized areas.

• The growth of an industrial economy also led to new patterns for European Agriculture. These included the price of farm commodities to plummet due to an abundance of grain and lower transportation costs, an introduction of machines for threshing and harvesting, specialization in certain food products, and the use of chemical fertilizers.

• After 1870, industrialization was especially noticeable in its rapid development in Russia and Japan. By the end of the 19th century, Japan had developed key industries in tea, silk, armaments, and shipbuilding.

• The economic developments of the late 19th century combined with the transportation revolution fostered a true world economy. By 1900, Europeans were importing many different things from Latin America.

• Europeans also started to invest their capital abroad to develop railways, mines, electrical power plants, and banks. The high rates of return provided plenty of incentive for this. Foreign countries also provided markets for the surplus manufactured goods of Europe.

New Patterns in an Industrial Economy (period 4) a.) From 1873-1895, there was a "great depression" with slumps in businesses. From 1895-WWI, Europe experienced an economic boom, creating the golden age of European civilization. II.) German Industrial Leadership b.) German industry overtook Britain because they merged science and technology in fields like organic chemistry and electrical engineering. c.) Britain entrepreneurs didn't invest in new plants and industries, and therefore, it was difficult to shift to the second industrial revolution. III.) European Economic Zones d.) The two economic zones consisted of an advanced, industrialized group of countries (Britain, Germany) and a group of more backwards, agricultural countries (Spain, Russia.) e.) In agriculture, food prices went down due to an abundance of grain, low tariffs, low transportation, etc. IV.) The Spread of Industrialization f.) Japan promoted industry, financed factories, built railroads, and trained employees. In additional, they instituted a universal education system based off science. g.) Although countries like Japan were greatly industrialized, workers experienced hardships like hot weather up to 130 degrees and the chance of getting shot if escaping. h.) Key industries in Japan were tea, silk, armaments, and shipbuilding. V.) World Economy i.) Importing became popular in the late 19th century, as transport was easier due to railroads and ships, (thus, creating a broader economy.) j.) Europeans imported beef and wool from Argentina and Australia. They imported coffee from Brazil, nitrates from Chile, iron ore from Algeria, sugar from Java, etc...

Women and Work: New Job Opportunities (period 2)

• Working class men argued that keeping women out of the industrial workforce would ensure the moral and physical well being of families, though in reality it simply made it easier to exploit them when they needed income to support their families.

• The desperate need to work, forced women to work as pieceworkers in sweatshops, which was low paid and lasted long hours. (Sweating-the subcontracting of piecework usually in the tailoring trades, done at home)

• After 1870 new job opportunities for women became available, because of the development of larger industrial plants and the expansion of government services, which created many service or white-collar jobs.

• Big businesses and retail shops needed clerks, typists, secretaries, file clerks and salesclerks, and the expansion of government services created opportunities for women to be secretaries and telephone operators and to take jobs in health and social services. Compulsory education also necessitated more teachers, and the development of modern hospital services opened the way for an increase in nurses.

• The white-collar jobs had distinct advantages for the daughters of the middle classes and the upward-aspiring working class, and were filled by working-class women who saw them as an opportunity to escape from the lower-class world, which led to a shift from industrial jobs to the white-collar sector of the economy, but not a rise in the female labor force.

• Many lower class women were forced to become prostitutes to survive, and in most countries prostitution was licensed and regulated by government and municipal authorities.

• The British government attempted to reinforce the Contagious Diseases Acts in the 1870s and 1880s by giving authorities the right to examine prostitutes for venereal disease, and if tested positive, were confined to special institutions called lock hospitals where they were given moral instruction.

• Middle-class female reformers, known as the “shrieking sisters” opposed the Contagious Diseases Acts. Their leader was Josephine Butler who objected to laws that punished women but not men who suffered from venereal disease, and were able to repeal the Contagious Diseases Acts.

Women and Work: New Job Opportunities (period 4)

Previous jobs for women: • Usually included working in a sweat shop for very low pay. These jobs tended to be done at home. • The poorest paying jobs were called “slop work.” Women would work long hours for very little pay.

White-collar jobs: • Increasing demand for white-collar workers at relatively low wages, and a shortage of male workers, led employers to hire women. • Some jobs included being a clerk, secretary, telephone operator, teacher, or nurse. • Apart from being a teacher or nurse, these white-collar jobs required little skill. • Most women in the work force came from the middle class, but some middle-class women found that these new jobs offered freedom from the domestic patterns that were expected of them. • White-collar jobs did not lead to an increase in the size of the female labor force, only to a shift from industrial jobs to the white-collar sector.

Prostitution • Many women became prostitutes to survive when they found no alternative. • Prostitutes usually aged between the late teens through the early twenties. After, they would usually join the general work force, or marry. • In most European countries, prostitution was licensed and regulated by government and municipal authorities. • Britain tried to regulate it by passing the Contagious Diseases Acts in the 1870s and 1880s which gave authorities the right to examine prostitutes for venereal disease. • Josephine Butler spoke against the Contagious Diseases Acts and objected to laws that punished women but not men who suffered from venereal disease. • Her and her fellow reformers were known as the “shrieking sisters” because they discussed sexual matters in public. They were successful in gaining the repeal of the acts in 1886.

• Upper Class Big businesses created a new group called the plutocrats, which consisted of members of the wealthy elite. Gradually, the greatest fortunes shifted into the hands of the upper middle class. Aristocrats and plutocrats fused together through numerous ways (kids going to the same wealthy elite schools, marriages, and purchasing landed estates to join aristocratic pleasures) The bond between wealthy business elite and traditional aristocrats wasn’t always peaceful often due to different beliefs. • Middle Class Between lower middle class and the lower classes were new groups of white-collar workers (i.e. travelling sales representatives, bookkeepers, bank tellers, secretaries, etc.) who were the product of the Second Industrial Revolution Successful middle classes shared a common lifestyle and values that dominated the nineteenth century society They were especially active in preaching worldviews to their kids and upper and lower class of their society. III. Lower Class 80 percent of Europeans belonged to the lower classes. Landowning peasants shared middle class values. Urban workers experienced betterment in material conditions after 1871. Urban improvements meant better living conditions; increasing in wages and decreasing in consumer costs led to them buying more than just food and housing.
 * Social Structure of Mass Society**  (period 2)

**10 Important Facts: Organizing the Working Classes (period 4)**

- Under two Marxist leaders, Wilhelm Liebkenech and August Bebel, the German Social Democratic Party (SPD) espoused Marxism and made efforts to improve the working conditions of the working class once they were in the Reichstag (the German Parliament). It became the largest single party in Germany in after the 1912 elections. - In 1889, leaders of the various socialist parties formed the Second International. Nationalism and revisionism, however, was divisive for the Second International. - Evolutionary socialism, or revisionism, challenged the orthodox Marxist position held by some Marxists and August Bebel, a critical leader of the German Social Democrats. - Bernstein argued that some of Marx’s ideas were wrong. The middle class was expanding, and had not declined, and at the same time the position of the proletariat was improving. He rejected Marx’s emphasis on class struggle and revolution and believed in evolution by democratic means to achieve the desired goal of socialism. - Nationalism was a much more powerful force than socialism and this was a divisive issue for international socialism. Even socialist party leaders supported the war efforts of their national governments when World War I began in 1914. - French unions created a national organization called the General Confederation of Labor in 1895; however, its decentralization and failure to include some important individual unions kept it weak and ineffective. - The German trade union movement was the second largest in Europe, after Great Britain’s. The successes of strikes and collective bargaining with employers predisposed German workers to forgo revolution for gradual improvements. - A lack of revolutionary ardor drove some people from Marxist socialism to anarchism. Early anarchists believed that true freedom could be achieved only by abolishing the state and all existing social institutions. Anarchist revolutionaries, in the second half of the 19th c., used more radical and violent means to accomplish their goal. - Anarchist assassins had killed a Russian tsar (1881), a president of the French Republic (1894), the king of Italy (1900), and a president of the U.S. (1901) by the turn of the century.

Transformation of the Urban Environment (period 2) • Thesis: During the late 19th century, Europe experienced a change in urban life. There were more people living in cities and at the same time, difficulties in rural areas forced mass emigration to the United States. Living conditions improved as health measures were taken to ensure sewage and filth stays away from the populous. Housing needs were being addressed and cities, such as Paris, were being redesigned to better suit the people.

• Population Growth • Europe population rose from 270 million to over 460 million between 1850 and 1910 • Decline in death rates was contributed to medical discoveries and environmental conditions • Diseases such as typhoid, dysentery, smallpox and cholera were being treated appropriately • Good harvest provided healthy nutrition for the people, reducing the number of the hungry

• Emigration • Growing agricultural and industrial prosperity could not be supported by little industrialization and severe rural overpopulation. • Excess labor from undeveloped areas migrated to the industrial regions of Europe. • By 1913, more than 400,000 Poles were working in the heavily industrialized Ruhr region of western Germany, and thousands of Italian laborers had migrated to France. • The industrialized regions of Europe were not able to handle the surplus in population because their land could not support the growing number of people. • The booming economies of North America and cheap shipping fares after 1900 led to mass emigration from southern and eastern Europe to North America. • In 1880, about 500,000 people left Europe each year. • From 1846-1932, about 60 million Europeans left Europe and went to the Americas Between 1889 and 1914, 3.5 million Poles from Russia, Austria, & Germany went to the US • Jews who were severely persecuted constituted 40% of the Russian emigrants to the United States and between 1900 and 1930, they constituted 12% of all emigrants to the US

• Improving Living Conditions • Public Health Act of 1875 in Britain prohibited the construction of new buildings without running water and an external drainage system. • A system of dams and reservoirs stored the water and aqueducts and tunnels carried it from the countryside to individual dwellings • Private baths became more accessible after gas heaters in the 1860’s made hot baths possible. By the 1880’s the shower had been invented. • A large system of underground pipes carried raw sewage from far from the cities to disposal. • Frankfurt had a very advanced sewage system and the slogan, “from the toilet to the river in half and hour” became widely spread. • In London, the city had five sewers that carried their loads 12 miles from the city where the waste was chemically treated. • In some area’s the sewers simply discharged their waste in lakes and rivers which caused horrible pollution • Overall, pure water and sewage systems improved the public health

• Housing Needs • Many people viewed unsanitary living conditions, which caused many fatal diseases, of the working class as a threat to both physical and political health of the entire nation. • Attacks on the housing problems emphasized the middle-class, liberal belief in the idea of privacy. • Another reform for housing was by Lord Leverhulme, who constructed a model village called Port Sunlight. This village offered pleasant living conditions in the belief that good housing would ensure a healthy and happy workforce.

• Redesigning Cities • Defensive walls that once protected cities from invaders proved obsolete and confining • Such restrictions i.e. walls and narrow streets, were torn down to build larger boulevards • Larger streets made it easier for mobility of the common citizen as well as the army, when it is needed to crush a revolt in a city • Many urban centers were remodeled to suit the new century: grand government buildings and retail stores that catered towards the middle class • Napoleon III was the foremost city rebuilder of the time (Paris) • Trains ran through cities to help connect displaced workers get to work from the suburbs

• Conclusion: During the second half of the 19th century, the urban life changed again. The population doubled within 50 years due to improvements in medicine and environment. However, in the less industrialized areas of East Europe, a mass emigration occurred during the late 1800s as thousands of Europeans left for the Americas. Cities in Europe were still dirty so house inspectors were assigned to investigate conditions. The sewage system was overhauled and carried trash and filth far away from cities. Housing was overcrowded and there was no privacy so reformers advocated private housing. The old, obsolete ramparts of the cities were taken down and streets were widened to better accommodate the growing population. The city center was a place for lavish retailers and large government, symbolizing the power of the middle class values.


 * Transformation of the Urban Environment (period 4)**

1. Population Growth- 1850-1910, drastic population increase, mainly due to increase in birthrate until 1880, where there was a large decrease in death rates. Increase of death rates mainly due to: Medical discoveries: Smallpox vaccinations, pasteurization, antiseptics Environmental Conditions: Improvements in urban environment, reduced death from diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever, cholera, which were mainly caused by poor sewage disposal and bad, water

Improved nutrition, increase of agricultural productivity, cheaper food due to decreased prices for transportation.

2. Emigration- Excess labor from underdeveloped areas emigrated to industrial regions of Europe. ex: southern Italy, Spain, Hungary, Romania, Poles, etc to Franc, Germany, GB. Industrial cities could not take all of the workers, booming North American economies and cheap shipping fares led to mass emigration to NA. Not solely economic, minorities like Germans and Magyars left Austria to avoid oppression, they went to the US. Heavily oppressed Jews emigrated to US too.

3. People moved to cities-People moved away from rural areas toward industrial cities, especially in Western Europe. Labor and housing were plentiful in the cities. And, the traditionally filthy cities were becoming cleaner and cleaner over time, with housing and public health reforms.

4. Housing reforms- As the cities were remodeling, citizens were displaced from urban centers by reconstructions and city populations spilled over to neighboring villages and country sides, which in time became part as the city as well. With larger cities the construction of the street car and commuter train lines enabled both working and middle class populations to live in their own neighborhoods further away from work which finally separated work from home.

5. Public health reforms-Overcrowded, disease ridden slums were viewed as dangerous not only to physical health but also to the political and moral health of the entire nation. So reforms were taken place to increase the housing needs of workers hoping to increase their quality of work. Larger scale operations didn’t take place until after WWI.

6. Building regulations-The new building regulations made it hard for contractors to build low-quality buildings. The Public Health Act of 1875 in Britain ensured that new buildings were made with running water and an internal drainage system.

7. City redesign- As the cities were remodeling, citizens were displaced from urban centers by reconstructions and city populations spilled over to neighboring villages and country sides, which in time became part as the city as well. With larger cities the construction of the street car and commuter train lines enabled both working and middle class populations to live in their own neighborhoods further away from work which finally separated work from home.

8. Medical revolutions-Medicine became much more effective in fighting diseases. Vaccinations for huge diseases like smallpox became common and the disease slowly died out. Antiseptics and pasteurization fought bacteria before it even entered the body.

9. Water and sewage- The task of bringing clean water into cities and sewage out of the city was an engineering challenge.

10. Technological effects- Inventions of streetcars and improved transportation due to internal combustion and electricity led to better living conditions and expansion of cities. Allowed workers to live further away from crowded cities where they worked, could take transportation from suburban areas nearby the city. These areas became communities of workers, became extension of cities.

I. Traditionally, women were domesticated. A. This traditional characterization was elevated in the nineteenth century, due largely to the impact of the Industrial Revolution. The men in the family would work while the women would stay home and tend to the children and household chores. II. Marriage became the only career option for women as all other jobs could not support them. A. There were no other jobs or careers available for them. So women had to get married to maintain financial stability causing the marriage rate to go up and the illegitimate birth rates to go down. III. Birth control also played a role in decreasing the amount of children women were having.
 * The Role of Women** (period 2)

A. This affected the evolution of modern families in the nineteenth century. “Family planning” became a widespread practice that focused on limiting the number of children in the lower classes. Reformers thought this would help with the issue of poverty.

IV. A. The use of domestic servants limited the amount of time middle class women had to spend on chores and left more time for the children. also, the number of children in the family was generally reduced and this left more time for women to devote to child care and domestic leisure. V. The middle class family focused on togetherness.

A. Society began to shift towards family traditions. The Christmas tree, Fourth of July picnics, and other festivities were now focused around families and children rather than drunken parties.

VI. The focus on children began to change as domestic ideas were used. A. Children were entitled to long childhoods and became interactive with other children their own age. New children’s games and toys were being mass produced. B. Mothers were seen as the most important force in protecting children from the adult world and the influences it could have. VII. The Working-Class daughters were expected to work until married and even after marriage they were needed at home to help support the family as well as working. A. Working class children were forced to mature by the age of 9 and began working and began working in the industry. B. This slowly changed as the late 19th century came about. VIII. Between 1890 and 1914, the high-paying jobs in certain industries allowed the families to depend solely on the male’s income, similar to middle-class women. A. The use of birth control was also implemented into the working-class as a method of limiting the size of families B. The improvement of technology such as cast-iron stoves, clocks and sewing machines made the lives of the household wives easier. IX. Middle-class wives were expected to do many tasks and maintain the image of the “idle” wife under public scrutiny at the same time. Having a perfect household was for the benefit of her spouse’s career. A. Despite keeping up the appearance of an “idle wife” in reality, they were in charge of jobs such as managing the family money and partaking in chores with the few servants they could afford. X. Labor strikes in the late nineteenth early twentieth centuries led to laws limiting labor hours to ten hours a day and establishing no work on Saturday afternoons so more time could be spent with families. A. With more time to devote to family life, parents could spend more time with their children developing stronger relationships, especially fathers who had shorter work hours and more time to spend with the kids. Children became an obsession and the focus on them increased during the twentieth century as education beca

**__10 Facts On The Role Of Women (period 4)__**

1. In the nineteenth century, marriage was viewed as the only career available to women.

2. There was no good way for birth control since condoms were not used widely until after World War 1.

3. Women were abused and had to stay home and tend to the home and children.

4. Women had no work available for them and they had lower wages than men.

5. Women were limited to playing games such as battledore and shuttlecock. These games are similar to modern day badminton.

6. Working class favored women staying home while the rich sometimes gave women more freedom.

7. The birthrates dropped significantly due to a decline in the number of offspring desired by the average woman.

8. In working class families, daughters were expected to work until (and sometimes even after) marriage.

9. Male industrial workers argued that keeping Women out of the work force would ensure moral and physical well being of families.

10. Coitus interruptus, better known as pulling out, was widely practiced as the main form of birth control at this time, which did limit the amount of children born.

Education and Leisure (period 2) 1. By 1850, secondary schools that taught classical (Greek and Latin) education expanded from the elite to the middle class. 2. In 1833, the French government instituted a system of state-run elementary schools for boys and girls. 3. At this time, education was not compulsory because children were still expected to work in the fields. 4. Mass education was due to industrialization and the need for a more educated electorate. 5. Women were often teachers because men occupied the majority of the factory jobs. 6. The increase in education led to higher literacy rates and with this, the rise of newspapers. 7. After long days at work, people would spend their nights at music and dance halls. 8. Because of the increased wages, the upper and middle class could now travel. 9. Team sports such as football and bowling for men, and croquet and lawn tennis for women, were on the rise as well.

Education and Leisure (period 4)
 * 1) The new business’ of the industrial revolution required for educated workers to operate machinery and to create a successful work environment.


 * 1) After 1850, secondary education expanded because many middle class families sought employment in more prestigious jobs, which often required more education.


 * 1) In the late 1800’s, Western European governments created a system of state run schools by instructing local governments to establish a free elementary school system for both boys and girls.


 * 1) Many people considered mass education necessary and beneficial in order to train an educated and talented military force.


 * 1) People considered teaching an extension of a woman’s duty to raise the children, therefore the majority of teaching jobs were held by women.


 * 1) Music and dance halls appeared in the second half of the nineteenth century, and by the nineteen hundreds they were very popular and strictly oriented towards adults.


 * 1) The upper and middle classes had created the first market for tourism, and as wages increased, workers were given paid vacations, and tourism became a form of mass leisure.


 * 1) Thomas Cook made a living organizing tours around Paris and Switzerland.


 * 1) Team sports were improved by the creation of a set of written rules and officials to enforce them.


 * 1) Sports during this time became much more popular due to the ability to transport large crowds to the sports venues. This allowed people to congregate together which paved the way for athletic associations and sports leagues.